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Africa 4 Toxoplasma lineage detected in wild impalas from Greater Kruger

Male impala standing in Kruger National Park, South Africa
Research: Disease, parasites & microbiology, Genetics & genomics

A 2026 study of wild impalas (Aepyceros melampus) from Timbavati Private Nature Reserve in South Africa detected the Africa 4 lineage of Toxoplasma gondii, a single-celled apicomplexan parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, in wildlife from the Greater Kruger region. The study also measured how commonly antibodies and parasite DNA could be detected in impalas destined for use as game meat.

Researchers collected serum and seven tissue types from 138 impalas. Antibodies against T. gondii were detected with a modified agglutination test, while quantitative PCR was used to search for parasite DNA in tongue, heart, diaphragm, triceps muscle, liver, spleen and brain tissue. Strong DNA-positive samples were then genotyped with 15 microsatellite markers, short repeated DNA regions whose variation can distinguish genetic lineages.

Antibodies were found in 8.7% and parasite DNA in 7.2%

Twelve of the 138 impalas had antibodies against T. gondii, giving a seroprevalence of 8.7%. Parasite DNA was detected in at least one tissue from ten animals, or 7.2% of the sample. Positive tissues included tongue, heart, brain, triceps and diaphragm, while no parasite DNA was detected in the liver or spleen samples.

Both fully genotyped samples belonged to the Africa 4 lineage

Two animals produced strong enough PCR signals for full genotyping. One positive sample came from brain tissue and the other from tongue tissue, and both belonged to the Africa 4 lineage. This adds a new wildlife host to the known picture of genetic diversity in African T. gondii populations.

Genetic tree of African Toxoplasma gondii genotypes highlighting the two Africa 4 genotypes detected in impalas from Timbavati
The two impala-derived genotypes cluster within the Africa 4 lineage; both belong to the ToxoDB#137 sub-lineage. Figure 3 from de Bruin et al. (2026), CC BY 4.0.

Only three impalas were positive in both the antibody test and PCR analysis. The researchers note that serology and direct DNA detection measure different aspects of infection, which helps explain why the two approaches did not identify exactly the same animals.

Because the sampled impalas were destined for human consumption, the authors discuss the findings in a One Health context, which treats human, animal and environmental health as interconnected. They identify Africa 4 strains circulating in South African wildlife and call for further characterisation of the genotype’s biological properties and disease-causing potential before the public-health implications can be assessed more precisely. They also note that consumption of raw or undercooked infected game meat can provide a route for T. gondii transmission.

Sources and image credit

  1. de Bruin, M., Rabé, S., Sekujika, O. N., Passebosc-Faure, K., Rougeron, V., Bosch, A. D., Dorny, P., Villena, I., Hammond-Aryee, K., van Helden, P., Esser, M., Mercier, A., Neves, L., Prugnolle, F., & Morar-Leather, D. (2026). Molecular epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in impala (Aepyceros melampus) from the Greater Kruger in South Africa: Detection of the Africa 4 lineage. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 20(7), e0014475. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0014475Primary peer-reviewed open-access study, published 9 July 2026

Image: Charles J. Sharp — male impala in Kruger National Park, South Africa; representative image from the Greater Kruger landscape. Source: Wikimedia Commons. · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Source

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